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Thursday, March 5, 2009

PERCEPTION OF RADIO PROGRAMME AMONG YOUTH IN ZARIA ; A STUDY OF RADIO DRAMA PROGRAMME
“GARIN MUNA FATA”

By
KABIRU DANLADI
U01MM1068CHAPTER ONE
1.1 BACKGROUND
The idea of establishing radio as any other mass medium is to educate, entertain, inform, and socialize the people. The emphasis largely has to do with creating awareness, surveillance of the environment, and correlation of the parts of the society in responding to its environment and the transmission of cultural heritage (Mcquil, 1998). It also helps in providing individual reward, relaxation and reduction of tension, which makes it easier for people to cope with real life problems and for societies to avoid breakdown (Mendelson, 1966). That radio has had a tremendous social impact, affecting attitudes and behaviour is undeniable.
In recognition of the unique nature of radio in terms of simplicity, wider coverage bringing the world to those who cannot read, its immediacy (Mcleish, 1978), its transmission in various local languages (Moemeka, 1981) as well as its contribution to the development of a nation, it is still the most credible source of news and enlightenment in most part of Africa (Okigbo, 1990). This made radio one of the most appropriate means of communication in any society, beating literacy barriers (Moemeka, 1981). In addition, radio has that personal touch that lends urgency to change.
Basically, communication is the process through which one person (the communicator) elicits responses from another person (the communicant) by the use of symbols (Hall, 1967). In radio programme, the communicator is far more apt to be a group than an individual. He is almost always a member of a large group – the audience. Audiences are made up of people who are different from each other, in a great many respects. These differences may be social, educational economic, psychological, cultural, ethical, religious, political, physical or intellectual. This wide diversity of backgrounds, skills, attitudes, produce problems for radio programmers. Hence, the subject matter of this work – Perception of radio programme among youth in Zaria .
The success of any communication is determined by response behaviour of the listener. The contribution a radio programme can make in behaviour or attitude change depends largely on the contents of the message. In the past i.e. in the 1930s, when media were well developed in the developed countries, they were credited with considerable power to shape opinion and belief, change habit of life, mould behaviour actively more or less according to the will of those who could control the media and their contents (see Bauer and Bauer in Mcquil, 1993). Over time, this assumption was dated. Researchers in media effects subsequently indicated that there are intervening variables relating to and from personal contact and social environment that affects the influence of media in attitudes and behaviour change (Mcquil, 1993).
Producing a radio programme is a mixture of the ideal and the expedient (Chester, et.al., 1978). Thus, the programme must have the ability to capture the mind’s eye of its audience. The producer has to have a deep knowledge and understand the people and the community he is directing the progrmame to. By this, we can produce a programme that his audience can feel it might help them in taking decision about their life. Sociologists believes that people of different social positions will share similar demographic characteristics and would exhibit similar reaction to messages. Variables as gender, age, education, income, ethic background and religion have influence on the kind of information selected. Social categories theories ‘takes account of the fact that the audience is stratified according to such variables of social position as life cycle, occupation, class, religion, sex etc.” (Deflewer, 1970). Members of a particular category will select more or less the same content and will respond to it in roughly equal ways.

1.2 THE SOCIETY FOR FAMILY HEALTH
The Society for Family Health (SFH), a Nigerian NGO affiliated to Population Services International (PSI), has been working in the area of sexual and reproductive health since 1995. Since the early 1990s, it has focused mainly on HIV and AIDS. SFH takes a two-pronged approach to its work; on the one hand, together with variety of partners, it undertakes behaviour change campaigns to motivate (for HIV/AIDS including safer sexual and reproductive health behaviour through partner reduction, fidelity, or abstinence), and on the other, it ensures easy access to affordable commodities such as condoms, pills, injectables, IUD, etc. for those who desire this form of protection against infection and or unplanned pregnancy.
Specifically, SFH employs mass media and interpersonal communication (IPC) to promote safe sex practices among sexually active Nigerians. This demand creation effort is complimented by distributing condoms and other family planning products mostly through the existing network of pharmaceutical outlets to the nook and cranny of Nigeria . Original goal was to entertain listeners and educate them on issues concerning oral conceptive. The emphasis was on the side effects of oral conceptive and their management. The first drama was entitled “One thing at a time” and was in English. This drama ran on 16 radio stations in South in 1998. Following a post broadcast evaluation by SFH research unit, fresh episodes of the drama was produced in Pidgin English in 1998, incorporating messages concerning HIV/AIDS, began airing on 16 Southern radio stations. Recognizing the needs to broaden communications work to the North of the country, the SFH issued a brief for Hausa Language drama in 1998 called “Garin Muna Fata”. The Hausa drama started airing in January 2000, and followed the same themes as had been used for “One thing at a time” in 1997. There is an also similar programme in Yoruba and Igbo Languages to improve comprehension in respective population. The Yoruba drama is called “Abule Oloke Merin” while the Igbo version is called “Oderinjin”. The main message themes remained the same, however, in 2002, the campaigns themes expanded to address other issues related to AIDS, such as fatalism and HIV prevention, invulnerability of HIV/AIDS and condom, misconceptions, issues on Family Planning (FP), types of FP methods, their advantages and how to manage side effects.
The overall objective of the drama series is to build awareness, increase knowledge, promote role models and influence societal norms with the aim of increasing safer sexual and family planning practices among the target audience.

1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
A good understanding of people’s culture, religion, income, and educational background is needed in planning interventions to change their attitudes and behaviour change. It is not easy to change the pattern of a man who is used to marrying four wives, bearing many children, using condom or negotiate sex with his wife. These issues are very foreign to him. In the light of the above the study intends to investigate how youth in Zaria perceive the drama programme ‘Garin Muna Fata”. Zaria is Muslim with few minority Christians, Hausa speaking and a closed society and very difficult in accepting changes (Maiangwa, 2004).



1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The study aim at:
(1) Determining whether youth in Zaria are aware of the drama programme “Garin Muna Fata”;
(2) Determine whether they listen to it or not;
(3) Determine how they perceive the programme;
(4) Determine factors responsible for their perception;
(5) Find out how the programme affects their attitudes and behaviour in their response to HIV/AIDS and family panning.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
(1) Are youth in Zaria aware of the programme ‘Garin Muna Fata”?
(2) Do they listen to the programme?
(3) How do they perceive the programme?
(4) Are their perception of the programme has to do with their existing attitudes and belief?
(5) What is their view about condom use, sex negotiation, early pregnancy and child spacing (FP)?
(6) Does the programme change their attitude toward HIV/AIDS and Family Planning?
(7) Do they use the knowledge learned on the programme?

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Like every research work, this study sought to add to the existing knowledge. The research also intends to fill the vacuum created by previous works on the issues of radio programme perception and attitude change and its consequences for producers and programmers. It also intends to break new grounds by coming out with a very comprehensive, critical and unique work by seeking to know variables relating to intervention in the perception of media contents. It is therefore, hoped that this study would be of benefit to students of Journalism and Mass Communication on one hand and programme producers on the other.

1.7 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The study will be limited to Federal Radio Corporation Kaduna listeners of the programme “Garin Muna Fata”. However, since many radio stations are airing the programme, response from listeners that listen to the programme on other station shall be used. Also, bearing in mind, the economic constraints prevailing in the country at the time of study, the researcher lacked funds to undertake more elaborate study. Therefore, this study did not lay claim to have identified adequately all the issues in media perception.
Another limitation of this study was the nature of its population, limited only to Zaria . The programme is aired all over Northern Nigeria, since FRCN Kaduna covers the whole North and some part of Niger Republic . In addition, the questionnaire could only be administered on the youth, who are the main focus of the programme. One cannot completely avoid human errors from the study; we should expect some errors in filling and answering the questionnaire. These are some of the limitations of the study.

1.8 THEORETICAL FRAME OF REFERNCE
1.9 THE MEANING PERCEPTION
According to Coon (2000) perception is a mental process of organizing sensation into a meaningful pattern. The concept of perception is a key dimension in understanding the diffusion of ideas. An idea could be new but may be regarded by experts in that field as important or useful but someone may not perceive that idea in a similar manner. Therefore, perception is the way in which he detects (See Lindsmith & Strauss in Rogers, 1962).
Perception is largely subject, but since our concern here is how people perceive media messages targeted at them, we shall limit ourselves to selective processes; selective perception, retention, exposure and attention.
According to Burgoon & Ruffner (Folarin, 1980) perception is the process of making sense out of experience. It is how individual makes sense out of his/her world (See Corner & Hawthon in Folarin, 1998). Perception depends on complex of variables such as psychological disposition, past experiences, cultural expectation and relationships. People want their beliefs and judgments about things to be consistent with one another. In order to reduce dissonance created by inconsistencies in belief, judgments and action, people expose themselves to information that is consistent with their ideas and actions and they shut out other communications. One has to expose himself to a message before he can attend to it, pay attention to it, before he can perceive it then he has to perceive it, before he can retain it for future use. This assumption according to Folarin (1998) means that the information receiver, or ‘user’ is selective in what he or she is exposed to, what is perceived and what is retained.
Media effect study has been characterized over time on the basis of assumption ( Griffin , 2000). Severin and Tankard (1979) depict the time between 1915 and 1939 as the era of ‘Bullet Theory’ (also known as ‘hypodermic needle theory’) of strong media effects. Jaffae (1995) argued that influential theories of this period, which included the development of propaganda, cinema and broadcast radio industries, presumed the exposure alone to mass mediated messages, resulted in cognitive, effective and behavioural changes. The limited effect theories or minimally powerful media theories were characterized by scholarship (e.g. Klapper, 1960, Mcquil, 1993, and Folarin, 1998), claiming that mass media actually had little or no strong effects on audiences. They argued that although the media might contribute to changes through a nexus of mediating factors and influences, the audiences on their part were assumed to be selective in their exposure, attention, perception and retention.
Critical mass theory, social influence model of media use and adaptive structuration theory – suggest that individual’s perception of media messages emerge as a result of their interaction with others (Baron, 2004). According to Jaffae (1995) interractional influence was better predictor of individual’s perceptions of media messages than were individuals demographic characteristics or characteristics of media. Mcquil (1998) posited that, it was not that the media had been found, under all conditions to be without effects, but they operate within a pre-existing structure of social relationships and a particular social and cultural context. The social and cultural factors therefore, become most important in shaping the opinions, attitudes and behaviour understudy. Attention, choice and response to media message by the audience can be derived from their cultural and social context in which they live (see Trennan and Mcquil in Mcquil 1993).
Mass media in any society is seen as a formidable means of social change. This is because in addition to its classical role of education, information and entertainment, it mobilizes and integrates different segments of society, but programme producers must consider societal sanctions norms and beliefs of people in order to produce programmes that can induce attitude change. The assumptions that the ‘preaching’ approach to communication can succeed with any type of message are dated (Klapper, 1960). According to Moemeka (1981) a programme producer has to be a good listener, rather than a good talker. He should recognize the worth of the people, their customs and beliefs. The programme should be built on and from the accumulated knowledge of the people, which has sustained them for centuries.

1.9.1 THE PROCESS OF PERCEPTION
As stated earlier, people tend to expose themselves to those media messages, which are in accord with their existing attitudes and interests. Messages that improve their lives morally rather than lower their social esteem. The processes involved in this self-protective exercise according to Klapper (1960) have become known as selective processes. They are; Selective exposure (or more classically ‘self selection); selective perceptions and selective retention Folarin (1998) added selective attention.

1.8.1(a) SELECTIVE EXPOSURE
According to Folarin (1998) “it is natural that people seek out information that caters to their own interest, confirms their beliefs and boost their own ego while avoiding those that are contrary to their own predispositions and attack their self-image. Cannel and Macdonald in a study discovered that articles on health, including those dealing with the possible relationship between smoking and cancer, were consistently read by 60% of non-smoking males, but only 32% of the male smokers to whom the material presented more of a threats; among women, for whom the threat was considerably less, the respective percentages were 69 and 59 (Klapper, 1960). It is quite common for someone who subscribes to V-mobile network to suddenly start to see more of that network’s advertising than someone who subscribes to for instance MTN (Baran, 2004).

1.8.1 (b) SELECTIVE PERCEPTION
Selective perception predicts that people will interprets messages in a manner consistent with their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. It is the study of perception that actually led to the discovery of the selective process (Folarin, 1998). Our previous experience and current dispositions – our needs, moods and memories determine the way we perceive and then decode messages. Allport and Postman in a study of the metamorphosis of rumors, presented virtual case histories of oral message (Klapper, 1960). The messages were changed in the process of social diffusion to fit existing spheres of knowledge and attitudes. They argued that material, which does not fit the predisposition of a perciver, is likely to be.
‘Recast to fit not only his span of comprehension and……………… retention, but, likewise, his own personal needs and interests. What was outer becomes inner, what was objective becomes subjective’ (Klapper, 1960).
Although, the study initially was a psychological research, it can be applied to mass media. This is because it is found that media messages are vulnerable to similar selective perception (Klapper, 1960, Baran, 2004).

1.8.1 (c) SELECTIVE RETENTION
Selective retention assumes that people remember best and longest those messages that are consistent with their pre-existing attitudes and beliefs. According to Folarin (1998) some messages are forgotten more quickly than others. Messages that are favourable to our self-image and us can be remembered with more accuracy than unfavourable ones.

1.8.1 (d) SELECTIVE ATTENTION
Scientifically the eye processes information much faster than the brain can interpret. The brain has to select which information to pay attention to at any given time, in order to avoid confusion (Folarin, 1998). Attention should only be given to messages that one fills are important to him.
However, the most powerful selective strategy is selective perception, since it makes people interpret messages (including mass mediated messages) not necessarily according to the meaning intended by the source but mainly on the basis of the personal factors like past experience, current dispositions and the linguistics resources at out disposal (Folarin, 1998).
New perspective and discoveries in mass media research held that the media role in shaping attitudes and behaviour is minimal (Folarin, 1998). Mass media messages ordinarily work through mediators, rather than shaping they reinforce the attitudes already existing. The mediators tend to render the media messages as agents, but not the sole cause of reinforcement (e.g. Klapper, 1960). Hence, the proposed theory “Users and Gratification Theory”.

1.8.1 (e) USES AND GRANTIFICATION THEORY
Blumer and Katz’s uses and gratification theory suggested that media users play an active role in choosing and using the media or its messages. Users take an active part in the communication process and are goal oriented in their media use (Katz, 1974). The theorists say that a media user seek out a media source that best fulfils the needs of the user i.e. the user has alternate choices to satisfy their needs. Blumer and Katz values are clearly seen by the fact that they believe that media consumers can chose the influence media has on them as well as the idea users choose media alternatives merely as a means to an end. Rubin (1986) believes that uses and gratification research will be best served by continuing to explore and explain the specific links among attitudes, motives, behaviour and communication effect. Employing the uses and gratification perspective has potentially significant benefits for programme producers. If they can identify, the form and content that satisfy their audience they have a dependable vehicle for successfully communicating persuasive messages.

1.10 FACTORS AFFECTING PERCEPTION
Media audiences already have their set of beliefs and attitudes some are relatively flexible, but some are so rigid that they can stubbornly defend them. The mass media have only a limited influence on people’s beliefs and behaviour (Billington, et. al., 1991). The society is organized through various groups and organizations whose strong ties and interdependences created stable group pressures that shielded the individual from direct media influence (se Bell in Billington et. al., 1991). Thus, the media help us make sense of our world. Thus, media rely on the idea that society operates on the basis of a shared common culture; that the majority, if not all of its members are in agreement on a wide range of norms, values and ideas and there is agreement on what are reasonable and acceptable patterns of behaviour. Stuart Hall in Billington et al., (1991) writes:
“It is assumed that we share a common stock of cultural knowledge with our fellow men… This ‘consensual’ viewpoint has important political consequences, when used as the taken for granted basis of communication”.
Therefore, the mass media is seen as performing function in a society. Functionalist (e.g. Comte 1798-1857), Herbert Spencer, 1820-1903) and Merton and Lazersfeld (Bryant and Myron, 2004) applied the theory in communication, view society as a system of interconnected parts which together form a whole. The foundation of this thesis is the metaphor of the living organism, whose parts and organs is grouped and organized, function to keep its essential processes going. The other parts i.e. family, religion, education, economy and culture.
A society is simply people in communication i.e. a network of interpersonal relationship. Merceiver and Page (Mahmood, 2005) defined society as any group of people with common culture who occupies a particular territory with a common feeling of unity and they regarded themselves as distinguishable”.
Indeed, virtually all discussions and literature by scholars and researchers on the factors affecting perception of radio programme (e.g. Roger, 1970, Gardner , 1969) have identified the family, religion, education, economy (income) and culture.
The most fundamental is culture. Culture is defined as the total way of life of people. We have come to see that the life of an individual cannot be understood in isolation from the socio-historical situation in which he finds himself. The sort of relationships, which exist between family members in a given society, are closely related to the educational system, prevailing economy, religion, family is very important in attitude formation, the school on the other hand promote social values and attitude. Religion determines the way people behave, the way they relate to their fellow beings. Culture on the other hand informs people orientation of social norms, attributes and values.
The underlying assumption of this argument is that society has certain basic needs if it is to operate normally – needs for information, for control, for continuity of norms and values. Peterson (Mcquil, 1969) describes the approach as ‘objective theory’ of communication. The theory according to Peterson holds that:
‘The media are seen as a mode of social interaction of various sorts; among individuals, between individuals and institutional orders of society, among institutions themselves. All this they do by the symbolic transfer of meaning, values and beliefs. Characteristically they purvey the ethos of the social order in which they operate. Yet they also provide the means of response and for potential challenges to that order…. Which of these tendencies is stronger at a given moment depends upon the stability or instability of the society’s power structure’.
Klapper (1963) noted that a study by Lazasfeld, Berelson and Graudet in 1948 pointed out predisposition on the part of audience toward opinions characteristics of their family groups or even readiness to adhere to a given point of view for no other reason than that it was family anchored. But Klapper was quick to point out that current theory regarding the resistance of group anchored attitudes to change and their susceptibility to reinforcement is not sufficiently refined, however, to permit wholly accurate prediction. Quite aside from providing anchorage for existing opinions, group membership (religious, family etc) may facilitate reinforcement and impede conversion by intensifying selective exposure.
Therefore, groups and group norm serve in various ways to mediate the perception of media message. The audience are guided in their viewing (for TV audience), in their listening (for radio audience and reading (for newspaper audience) by social circumstances, ranging from culture, religion, their family and the level of their education.

According to Sambe (2005) the earlier concept of prime influence of the media has now given way to more complex considerations that depend heavily on family, educational and cultural background etc, environment for the interpretation and utility of media messages. Religious beliefs, peer groups and gender, all give individuals’ different approaches and background to interpretation of media messages. When we interpret mass media messages, how we react to them depends on how they affect us
2.9 BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE COMMUNICATION
The problem of HIV/AIDS at national prevalence rate of 5.0% (The Federal Ministry of Health, 2003 National ANC Sero prevalence Survey data) is a major national development issue. The epidemic is spreading rapidly, further affecting the quality of life of Nigerians. At least, 80% of the infection is contacted through sexual intercourse and the presence of sexually transmitted infection (STI’s) increases susceptibility to HIV/AIDS. Young people between the ages of 15-29 years have the highest rate of infection. Heterosexual intercourse is said to be driving the epidemic. Experience in other countries (e.g. Uganda ) has shown that a holistic approach that includes promotion of abstinence, partner reduction and consistent condom use for the sexually active in a context where social support favourable can lead to a reduction in the spread of HIV/AIDS.
Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa with a current estimated population of 126.6 million people. Total fertility rate (TFR) is estimated to have remained at 6 children per woman since 1990. This figure is disputed and probably ranges between 5.2 and 6.0, but is thought to be closer to 6.0 (NDHS). In the North women have almost 3 more children per woman than in other regions.
In 2002, the society for Family Health began to implement the Promoting and Reproductive Health and HIV prevention programme (PSRHH) with the aim of:
· Increasing use of condoms with non-spousal partners among target groups;
· Reducing incidence of unprotected sex among key target groups;
· Reducing members of sexual partners (among key target groups).
· Delaying the age of sexual debut, particularly for girls;
· Increasing modern contraceptive prevalence rate (the use of modern family planning methods.
uThe target groups for the radio drama are general population married and unmarried between ages 18 to 35 years; youth multiple partners and those at the verge of being sexually active. The method adopted is behavior change. The method has been an important strategy for combating HIV since the beginning of the epidemic. However, encouraging behaviour change is often complicated due to cultural norms. Traditionally having many children is a pride on the side of the father and Islamically a man is allowed to marry four wives. And the idea of using condom is believed by many people that it encourages sexual promiscuity, which is harem in both Islam and Christianity.
.
Since the main focus of this study is perception as it relates to behaviour change. The overall behaviour change strategy is based on the information, motivation and behavioural skills (IMB) model with elements of diffusion theory and social cognitive theory (SCT). Diffusion theory is particularly relevant as a theoretical basis for how innovations are diffused from the early adopters to reach a majority of the individuals in a social network (Community) and guides the integrated use of mass media, entertainment – education (Edutainment) efforts and interpersonal communication (Rogers, 1962). The IMB model focused on interventions that are based on information, motivational and behavioural skills determinants of behaviour change (Bandura, 1971). The social cognitive theory advocates that people learn from role models whose behaviour they wish to emulate. Modeling acknowledges that people learn from variety of experiences, often vicariously, by observing the action of others. Thus, behaviours, which are modeled from media experiences, can become habitual if found useful and/or if they are reinforced in the environment. It accounts for normal human behaviour like the way we dress, phrases we use and the way we groom ourselves etc (Coon, 2002).
One other theory that is relevant here is the uses and gratification theory (Katz, 1990). It posits that there should be less attention paid to what the media do to people and more attention on what people do with media. The theory perceive the recipient as actively influencing the effect process, since he selectively chooses, attends to, perceives and retain the media messages on the basis of his/her needs and belief etc.
Theories are systematically related generalizations, which attempt to explain and predict. The bottom line on these theories is; we are all different because we have different experiences and we are made differently. Those differences affect how we receive and understand media messages. So, instead of a mass media messages{all the same way}, our differences limit the effect of the messages.. Thus, a mass media messages’ influence seem to be mediated by factors and condition.



DEFINITIONS OF KEY TERMS
1. Abstinence: This means refraining from casual and multiple sex and sticking to one partner.
2. Attitudes: This comprises the feeling and belief of people about an idea and their behaviour towards it.
3. Audience: Those whom a programme is designed for. In this context, it means the youth, poor and vulnerable in Hausa speaking area.
4. Awareness: This is to inform people about the existence and nature of something; in this context, it is referred to the target audience having the knowledge of HIV/AIDS and realizing the importance of family planning technique.
5. Content: Messages contained in a programme.
6. Correlation: This means bringing a mutual relationship between policy makers and their audiences.
7. Behaviour: This means a situation where if full knowledge were available all human action can be analyzed into stimulus and response.
8. Mass medium: This refers to a means through which information action is disseminated to influence the ideas of enormous number of people. The phrase here can be used interchangeably with radio.
9. Media: This is a means of communication like interpersonal group, radio, television, newspaper, etc.
10. Messages: This is a content of a programme i.e. what the communicator wants his audience to receive.
11. Partner reduction: This is a process of reducing sex partners to only one so that the risk of contacting HIV/AIDS is reduced.
12. Perception: This is the act and power of becoming aware of change either in mind or through the eyes. In this context is referred to how audiences understand and interprets the concept of the radio programme.
13. Producers: These are the people responsible for a broadcast programme.
14. Programme: This means a radio or televise broadcast; which in the context refer to the drama programme.
15. Post broadcast evaluation: This is an assessment conducted by SFH after airing the radio drama.
16. Sexually active: This means a person who is not virgin i.e. he had engaged even once in sexual intercourse.
17. Stratified: This means the social class or division in a society.
18. Surveillance: In mass communication parlance the word surveillance means a process whereby the media perform a role of checking the excesses of policy makers.
CHAPTER TWO
2.1. INTRODUCTION
The pioneer research work into perception studies was Joseph Klappers’ work published in 1960, ‘The effect of mass communication’. According to Mcquil (1993). Klapper distinguished between ‘conversion’, ‘minor change’ and ‘reinforcement’ – respectively. This means that in any media message, there is a change according to the intention of the communicator; change in form or intensity, then confirmation by the receiver of his or her own existing beliefs and opinions.
With emphasis on current volume, this chapter presents synthesis of related literature on perception, which constitutes the subject matter of this study. Derivatively, the chapter takes a look at the history of radio medium, then radio drama, attitudes and behaviour, general diffusion theory, media research and diffusion theory.

2.2 RADIO AS A MEDIUM
Radio communication was of many minds. What started as Henrich Hertz a German, thereby creating what are now called Radio waves, demonstrated prediction by James Maxwell in 1860’s. In 1895 Gugliemo Marconi transmitted signals at a short distance and in 1901 and 1902 conducted successful transatlantic tests. This new communication medium was known as ‘wireless’, later in 1912 the American started calling it radio.
Radio broadcasting is customarily an ensemble task in which numbers of people have a part; announcers, musicians, engineers, writers, publicists and others. It is also depend on complex electromagnetic devices and associated materials.

2.3 RADIO PROGRAMME (DRAMA)
The symbol output of radio is called programming. According to Hall (1967) radio is ‘blind medium’ and the type of programmes it produces is derived largely from the simple fact that, unlike television, it provides no visual message to the listener. Radio programmes, unlike the printed pages of books or newspapers, are also ephemeral products; very few people bother to record radio programmes (Chester et. al., 1978). So they cannot be so easily ‘re-read’. Radio programmes therefore have to provide the listener with extra auditory clues to compensate for the lack of images and must ensure that the listener understands these clues at the first and almost certainly only – hearing. Communication theorist suggest that, if people tend to interpret the world largely through their ability to see it, then being deprived of visual clues will compel them to supply such clues for themselves.
Radio has been called the art of imagination. According to Hilliard (1967) the writer for radio is restricted by the breadth and mind’s eye of his audience. He has to create through effective combinations of sounds, music, dialogue and silence whatever stimuli he wishes to and may place the audience in any physical relationship to any character he wishes. Thus, when listening to a radio play, one needs to imagine not only a character’s thought but also that person’s appearance and surroundings. Radio dramatists argue that this offers greater intellectual and emotional reward to a listener – as opposed to a viewer – and allows the writer to create stories and characters that are truly experimental and fantastical. According to Zola (1994) the playwright is like a doctor who must expose a disease in order to cure it – drama therefore had to bring social ills into the open. The result of this was drama that focused on the seamier elements of society rather than beautiful or ideal.



2.4 ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR
Gasket (2003) pointed out that the means of communicating have grown alongside the increased power of people to shape their physical world as their increasing interdependence. With the telecommunication and data communications revolutions the world has been turned into a ‘global village’ (Mcluhan, 1964). The influence of media on the lives of people increased the study of their effect and their role in shaping attitudes and behaviour. It is believed by some that, the media tend to reinforce personal views, (e.g. Klapper, 1964, Mcquil, 1999, Baron, 2004) and by others that political conversion of transmitting information is relevant. Nonetheless, the changing communications media have proven to have a long term effect, which bring subtle but very important changes to views and perception of media (Baron, 2004).

2.4.1 MEANING OF ATTITUDES
In social psychology, the idea of ‘attitudes’ is central to explaining the need for a link between an individual’s perception of the world and his/her action within it (Coon, 2000). According to him an attitude is a mixture of belief and emotion that predispose a person to respond to other people, objects or institutions in a positive or negative way. An assumption common to various models of attitude change is that these three components co-exist harmoniously and are internally consistent. This is such that an induced change in one component of an attitude creates on inconsistency that can be resolved by compensatory changes in other two components. This essentially perceptual or cognitive perspective is due, in large measure, to the early and continuing influence of Gestalt Psychology (Coon, 2000). Gestalt Psychology is a school, which emphasizes the study of thinking, learning and perception in whole unit not by analysis into parts.

2.4.2 BEHAVIOUR
Psychologically, behaviour is anything one does – eating sleeping, talking, thinking or sneezing (Coon, 2000). So also, dreaming, watching television, learning English. Our behaviour is guided by our attitudes towards people, objects, or institution. Attitudes are acquired in several basic ways. Direct contact (experience), interaction with people through discussion with people holding a particular attitude, then child rearing (the effects of parental values, beliefs and practices). Although, attitudes are relatively stable, they do change (Coon, 2004), through persuasion. Festinger (1950) discussed the concept when he talked about cognitive dissonance theory. According to him individuals tend to avoid information that is dissonant or oppose to their own point of view, and they tend to seek out information that that is, in consonant, or in support of their own attitude.
Festinger’s theory points out that, people whose attitudes can be influenced most readily are those who have not yet made up their minds. Understanding the theory and its potential for influencing the silent majority is extremely important for a programme producer, whose objective is to make his audience accept his ideas through thoughtful, clear and persuasive communication.

2.5 DIFFUSSION OF INNOVATION
The study of diffusion theory is potentially valuable in the study of perception and mass media effects. According to Rogers (1995), Diffusion is defined as the process by which an innovation is adapted and gains acceptance by members of certain community. While a number of factors interact to influence diffusion of an innovation Rogers (1995) pointed out four factors that influence the process of diffusion. These are: the nature of the innovation itself; how information about the innovation is communicated; time and the nature of the social system into which the innovation is being introduced. Diffusion research in its simplest form, investigate how these major factors, and a multitude of other factors, interact, to either facilitate or impede the adopter group.
But before discussing how diffusion theory has been incorporated into media research, we will provide a brief background and overview of general diffusion theory.

2.5.1 GENERAL DIFFUSSION THEORY
The most important fact to consider in discussing diffusion theory is that it is not one well-defined, unified and comprehensive theory. A large number of theories, from a wide variety of disciplines, each focusing on a different element of the innovation process, combine to create a meta-theory of diffusion (Surry, 2000).
The most likely reason for the lack of unified theory of diffusion is that the study of innovation diffusion is fairly recent. Roger (1995) points out that a 1943 study by Ryan and Gross at Iowa University provided the genesis of modern diffusion research. The Ryan and Gross study, from the field of rural sociology used interviews with adopters of innovation to examine a number of factors related to adoption. The interview-based methodology used in the Ryan and Gross study has remained the predominant diffusion research methodology ever since ( Rogers , 1995).

2.5.2 MEDIA AND DIFFUSION OF INOVATION
Roger 1962 contributed to the findings of Ryan and Gross by studying this diffusion phenomenon in articles across the discipline and produced the five stages of adoption process, namely awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, and finally adoption. He also refined their distinction between the early accepters, early adopters, the majority and later accepters by producing the popular diffusion of innovation curve and a corresponding defined set of individual adopter types, including innovators, early adopters, early majority, and late majority and laggards, each with their own location on the adoption curve.
Figure 6.4
Figure 6.5
Roger explained diffusion of innovation as a theory that analyses, as well as helps explains, the adaptation of a new innovation. It help the process of social changes .An innovation is an idea practice and object that is perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption .the perceived newness of the idea for the individual determine his/her reaction to it [Roger 1995] .As a result diffusion is the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channel over time among the member of a social system. Thus, the four main element of the theory are the innovation, communication channel, time and the social system .The realization of the diffusion of innovation theory might seem simple at first, but various other earlier works were critical in helping communication researchers arrive at it. The two-step flow of communication was a hypothesis that was under considerable examination. Katz [1957] hypothesized that ideas flow from radio to opinion leader and from these to the less active sections of the population.
Information source are important stimuli to the adoption process .The individual becomes aware of innovation mainly by impersonal and cosmopolite sources such as the mass media .The media are readily available and attractive source of innovations. They provide symbolic innovation of almost every conceivable form of behaviour. Sociologists concerned with social and economic development have attached much importance to the mass media continuing a tradition [Defleur, 1995]. They are looked at as an efficient instrument for spreading information and altering attitudes towards innovation [Baran, 2004]. The field of diffusion studies, while concerned primarily with the adoption of innovations in rural areas and focusing on the structural determinants of adoption rather than on large-scale effects of mass media, is very relevant to the present discussion.




CHAPTER THREE

3.0 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter attention shall focus on the methodology of data collection and analysis used in this research. The chapter discusses the research population, sample selection, research design, construction and validation of instrument, data gathering procedure, and data analysis.

3.1 INDENTIFICATION OF POPULATION
In any research especially scientific the goal is to describe the nature of a population. Population is sometimes referred to as the universe and it is defined as the entire group whose characteristics are to be estimated (Ndagi, 1984). According to Wimmer and Dominic (2000) population is a group or class of subjects, variables, concept or phenomena. We can have population of persons such as students; geographic area such as residential areas objects such as textbooks or test items. Population could be infinitely large (e.g Nigerians, past, present and future) or finite (such as 400 level students that participated in the fight against HIV). The research population in this study is the youth in Zaria town, Kaduna State . In order to simplify the process, the usual procedure in these instances is to take sample from the population.

3.2 STUDY AREA
Zaria can be described as the mother of all towns in Kaduna State , because all the major towns had at one time or another been under its administration. It was one of the original seven Hausa state (Hausa Bakwai). It was established by Gimguma, the son of Bawo and the grandson of Bayajidda, the great legendary warrior of Daura, whose sons established the seven Hausa states.
According to the 1991 population census, Zaria has a total population of 277,187 people. The town comprises the old Zaria city, Tudun Wada, Sabon gari, Palladan, Kwangila, Samaru, Gaskiya and Wusasa. The main ethnic groups include Hausa and Fulani. There are also various ethnic groups from different part of Nigeria who come to settle in Zaria . The main occupation of Zaria people is farming, Arabic scholarly, blacksmithing and trading being the busiest activity for both men and women. With the establishment of higher institution of learning in the early sixties, western education triumphed which saw the influx of many people from different part of the country and beyond into the town. Majority of the population in Zaria are Muslims, however, there are Christians and animist as well.

3.3 SAMPLE SELECTION
A sample is a subset of the population that is representative of the entire population. Sample is defined as a limited number of elements selected from a population (Ndagi, 1984). Being representative does not imply that a sample is a mini-population, i.e having the exact characteristics of the parent’s population except in the case of some populations that have been completely studied, e.g census reports (Wimmer and Dominic, 2000). Any sample that is not representative of the population regardless of its size is inadequate for testing purposes (Ndagi, 1984). This is because the results cannot be generalized.

3.4 DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE
The researcher used combination of primary and secondary methods of data collection. The primary method employed in this research is the survey method. It is used in collecting intensive data for study and analysis. Primary data are data collected which contain no unknown quantities in respect of method of collection, accuracy of measurement of which member of population in investigated. The survey method is a technique that involves drawing up a number of questions on various subjects or on various aspects of a subject to which selected members of a population are requested to react (Sobowale, 1983). According to him it is commonly used by behavioural scientists because it is an important instrument for obtaining information from people about their perception, opinion, attitudes and behaviours in survey stdy.
Two types are used in survey methods: Descriptive and Analytical. A descriptive survey attempts to picture or document current conditions or attitude – i.e describes what exists at the moment (Wimmer and Dominic, 2000). Analytical on the other hand describes and explains why certain situation exist. In this approach, two or more variables are usually examined to test research hypotheses. The results allow researcher, to examine the interrelationships among variables and to draw explanatory inferences. In the current study the analytical survey is used to obtain information.
Due to time constraints and lack of funds, the study adopted the stratified random sampling to collect information from respondents. According to Ndagi (1984) the srs is the process of dividing a population into strata or sub-populations. The researcher divided the population into districts, for e.g Zaria City , Tudun Wada, Sabon Gari, Samaru, Wusasa, etc. Selections are made randomly and independently from each stratum. The estimate of the parameter over all strata is computed. The reason why the study adopted the srs is that the stratification allows variability of the elements selected within each stratum to be more homogenous than is the variability of elements between strata (Ndagi, 1984).

3.5 CONSTRUCTION AND VALIDATION OF INSTRUMENTS
The study employed questionnaire as instrument for gathering data. The questionnaire is made up of structured questions related to the research questions, objective and research problem. Respondents are expected to answer these questions. It is a proper method of data collection and it is simple. It is suitable for very large population, but is major problem is high rate of non-return of questionnaire which affect the analysis (Adenji, 2006). For this research one hundred questionnaire were distributed randomly to the sample selected.

3.6 DATA ANALYSIS
The method of data analysis to be employed is simple statistics, where data collected could be analysed using the measure of central tendency. They can be grouped in terms of educational background and income. The data could be put into tables and or charts where necessary.

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 INTRODUTION
This chapter shall focus on presenting data collected, based on the reaction of respondent on how they are perceiving the programme “Garin Muna Fata”. Data collected shall be presented in simple percentage and tables for easy interpretation.
A total of 100 questionnaires were returned, out of the 100 administered, which represent a response rate of 100% (percent). This was made possible by the researcher where questionnaires missing were re-administered. However in supplying answers, many questions were skipped by respondents that they were suppose to answer all. In analyzing the data, therefore the researcher presented all skipped questions in percentages in order to give an accurate presentation of all the data. The following findings are presented in the order of the question asked or raised in tables.

TABLE ONE
SEX DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS
Variables
Numbers of Respondents
Percentage
Male
69
69%
Female
31
31%
Total
100
100%

In table one above, 69 or 69% of the respondents were males, while 31 or 31% of the respondents were females. This invariably means majority of the respondents were males which, means they have the highest opportunity of answering the questionnaire.



TABLE TWO
AGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE RESPONDENTS
Variables
Number of Respondent
Percentage
15 – 18 years
9
9%
19 – 25 years
42
42%
26 – 30 years
29
29%
31 – 35 years
17
17%
Total
100
100%

In table two 9 or 9% of the respondents were between the ages of 15 – 18 years of age, 42% or 42 respondents were 19 – 25 years old, 29% were between 26 – 30 years while 17 or 17% were between the ages of 31 – 35 years. The average mean age of all the respondents is 20 years. From the table we will be able to deduce that majority of the respondents were between the ages of 19 – 25 years.

TABLE THREE
MARITAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS
Variables
Number of Respondents
Percentage
Single
71
71%
Married
27
27%
Divorced or separated
2
2%
TOTAL
100
100%

In table three, 71 or 71% of the respondents were single, 27 or 27% of the respondents are divorced, separated or widowed. This means majority of the respondents which made 71 (71%) of the respondents were single.



TABLE FOUR
OCCUPATIONAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS
Variables
Number or Respondents
Percentage
Students
63
63%
Civil servants
18
18%
Farmers
10
10%
Others
7
7%
Total
100
100%

In table four, 63, or 63% of the respondents are students which are the majority, 18 or 18% are civil servants, 10 or 10% of the respondents are farmers, while 7 or 7% of the respondents are either businessmen or engage in other jobs.

TABLE FIVE
EDUCATIONAL LEVEL
Variables
Number of Respondents
Percentage
Tertiary
79
79%
Secondary
21
21%
Primary
-
-
Others
-
-
Total
100
100%

In table five majority of the respondents were in tertiary institutions, 79 or 79% have an advanced level certificate. While 21 percent were in secondary school or have a senior school certificate.






TABLE SIX
ANNUAL INCOME OF THE RESPONDENTS
Variables
Number of Respondents
Percentage
Less than N5000
17
17%
N5000 – N14000
42
42%
N15000 – N25000
29
29%
N26 – N50,000
9
9%
Total
100
100


In table six, the income level of the respondents were sought where 17 or 17% of the respondents have an income of N5, 000 or less. Majority had an income of 14,000 to as small as N5, 000 while 29 or 29% had an income of between N15, 000 to N25,000. The rest i.e 9 or 9% had an income of N25, 000 to 50,000 per annum. The average mean of the entire respondent is N20, 000.
TABLE SEVEN
OWNERSHIP OF RADIO SET BY RESPONDENTS
Variables
Number of Respondents
Percentage
Yes
88
88%
No
12
12%
Total
100
100%

In table seven, 88 respondents or 88% owner radio set while 12% or 12 of the respondents did not have radio set this means majority of the respondents had radio sets i.e. 88% which is a good indication of good response.




TABLE EIGHT
RESPODENTS WHO HAVE NO RADIO CCESS
Variables
Number of Respondents
Percentage
Always
1
8.3%
Occasionally
5
41.5%
Rarely
5
41.5%
Never
1
8.3%
Total
12
100%

In table eight, 12 people or 12% of the respondents did not have radio set. Out of these 1 or 8.3% had access to radio set always, 5 respondents or 41.5% occasionally, 5 or 41.5% rarely while 1 respondent or 8.3% said he never had access to radio.

TABLE NINE
FAVOURITE RADIO STATION OF THE RESPONDENTS
Variables
Number of Respondents
Percentage
FRCN
62
62%
KSMC
25
25%
PRTV
3
3%
OTHERS
10
10%
TOTAL
100
100%

In table nine, the respondents’ favourite radio station indicates that majority 62 or 62% of the respondents choose Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria , Kaduna as their favourite radio station. 25 or 25% KSMC, 3 or 3% PRTV while 10 or 10% others like Nagarta Radio, BBC.
TABLE TEN
FREQUENCY OF LISTENERSHIP
Variable
Number of Respondents
Percentage
Always
56
56%
Occasionally
31
31%
Rarely
12
12%
Skip
1
1%

6 comments:

  1. where are your references sir???

    ReplyDelete
  2. Very Pathetic! You publish a research article of this nature without a reference!! Are you trying to tell your audience you wrote this yourself? Please make necessary corrections, you are breaking the rules of research and committing an offense known as plagiarism

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  3. Nice one but pls try and make necessary corrections

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  4. This is a good research never mind its good without references to avoid people copying the entire work. Kudos

    ReplyDelete